Showing posts with label bias. Show all posts
Showing posts with label bias. Show all posts

Tuesday, November 13, 2018

FOR BLACK CHILDREN, HAVING EVEN ONE BLACK TEACHER CAN LEAD ON TO COLLEGE

Decades of research have shown that negative stereotypes have a major impact on people's performance and achievement. The theory that best explains these deleterious effects--stereotype threat--argues that the targets of negative stereotypes have to fight against a potentially disabling dose of anxiety and self-doubt when they are in a situation that evokes the stereotype. Typical examples might include a black student taking a scholastic aptitude test, a woman starting a STEM-related job, or an older person faced with a physically or mentally demanding task.

Happily, a growing body of research has shown that seemingly small interventions can reduce or in some cases even eliminate the impacts of stereotype threat. Many of these interventions focus on creating a different mind-set, for example by removing stimuli that evoke the stereotype, writing an essay about one's own family and character at the beginning of a school year, or reinforcing the idea that intelligence is malleable. Some of these positive effects last far beyond a single test or challenge, in some cases improving students' grades for an entire year.

For black children we can now add the potentially lifelong impact of having even one black teacher early in life.

 Graduates--Bennet College, 2008

Researchers at Johns Hopkins University and American University utilized student data derived from Tennessee's STAR class-size reduction program, which started in 1986. They found that black children who had a black teacher in kindergarten were 14 to 18 percent more likely to enter college. Having two black teachers in their first two school years boosted children's chances of enrolling in college by a remarkable 32 percent compared to peers who did not have those black role models.

The researchers believe that having one or more black teachers enhances black children's sense of what is possible and worthwhile for them.

One way in which having a same-race role model may have played out is by inculcating "grit" or determination, traits that are as important to achievement in school and life as knowledge or cognitive skills. The researchers found that black middle-school students who had had a black teacher in their first years of school were 10 percent more likely to receive teacher comments such as "persistent," "made and effort," or "tried to finish difficult work" than peers who had had only white teachers early on.

Having at least one black teacher as an early role model may be particularly important for boys. Using data from North Carolina, the researchers found that for boys, having had a black teacher in elementary school reduced the high school drop out rate by one-third.

"The role model effect seems to show that having one teacher of the same race is enough to give a student the ambition to achieve, for example, to take a college entrance exam," said Nicholas Papageorge, an assistant professor of economics at Johns Hopkins. "But if going to college is the goal, having two teachers of the same race helps even more."

In addition to the impact of having same-race role models, the researchers found that teachers' expectations also influence children's long-term aspirations and success. Black teachers, it turns out, tend to have significantly higher expectations for black students than white teachers do. Those expectations, in turn, can become self-fulfilling prophecies.

Since the vast majority of teachers are white, even if they cannot be same-race roll models to black children, it falls to them not to under-estimate the potential of their black students, but to assume and convey the belief that they have the same potential for learning, achievement and success as white children.

"While we make efforts to find and train new black teachers," says Papageorge, "we also need to educate white teachers about implicit bias, teach them to be culturally competent, and show them how not to exacerbate these existing achievement gaps."

-----

You can access the original research article here.

-----Here's the same story in Spanish:

Décadas de investigación han demostrado que los prejuicios y estereotipos negativos tienen un gran impacto en el rendimiento y los logros de las personas. La teoría que mejor explica estos efectos nocivos—las amenaza del estereotipo—propone que los impactados por estereotipos negativos tienen que batallar contra una dosis potencialmente incapacitante de ansiedad y dudas de si mismo cuando estén en una situación que evoca el estereotipo. Ejemplares típicos pueden incluir un estudiante negro tomando una prueba de aptitud académica; una mujer empezando un trabajo en las ciencias, la tecnología, la ingeniería o las matemáticas; o una persona mayor frente a una tarea físicamente o mentalmente exigente.

Felizmente, un creciente cuerpo de investigación ha mostrado que aparentemente pequeñas intervenciones pueden reducir o, a veces, incluso eliminar los impactos de la amenaza del estereotipo. Muchas de estas intervenciones funcionan por crear un contexto cognitivo y emocional diferente, por ejempolo por eliminar estímulos que evocan el estereotipo; por escribir un ensayo sobre su propia familia, valores y carácter cuando empieza un año de escuela; o por reforzar la idea que la inteligencia es maleable, o que la edad no tiene que disminuir las capacidades de uno. Algunos de estos efectos positivos pueden durar mucho más allá que una sola prueba o desafío, a veces pueden mejorar las calificaciones de un estudiante por todo un año.

Para niños negros ahora podemos agregar el impacto positivo potencialmente por toda la vida de tener a lo menos un maestro negro temprano en la vida.

Investigadores en la Universidad de Johns Hopkins y la Universidad Americana usaban datos derividos del programa STAR Reducción del Tamaño de Classes, lo que empezó en 1986. Ellos descubrieron que niños negros quienes hayan tenido un maestro negro en el jardín de niños fue 14 hasta 18 por ciento más probable que hubiera entrado la universidad. Tener dos maestros negros en los dos primeros años subió la probabilidad de empezar en la universidad por un notable 32 por ciento en comparasión con compañeros a quienes les faltaron estos modelos negros a seguir.
Los investigadores creen que tener uno o mas maestros negros realza el sentido de niños negros de lo que sea posible y valioso para ellos.

Una manera en la que tener un modelo a seguir de la misma raza podía haber tenido un impacto es por inculcar valentía o determinación, rasgos que son tan importantes en la preparación y en la vida como conocimiento o habilidades cognitivas. Los investigadores descubrieron que entre los estudiantes negros de la escuela intermedia, los que han tenido un maestro negro durante sus primeros años de escuela fueron 10 por ciento más probable que recibiesen comentarios como “persistente,” “hizo un esfuerzo,” o “trató de terminar trabajo difícil” en comparasión con compañeros quienes han tenido nada más maestros blancos en sus primeros años.

Tener a lo menos un maestro negro como un modelo a seguir temprano en la vida puede ser especialmente importante para niños. Usando datos de Carolina del Norte, los investigadores descubrieron que para niños, haber tenido un maestro negro en la primaria redújo la tasa de deserción

Este efecto de modelo a seguir parece mostrar que tener un maestro de la misma raza es suficiente para darle a un estudiante la ambición de lograr, por ejemplo, tomar un examen para entrar la universidád,” dice Nicholas Papageorge, un profesor asistente de la economía en Johns Hopkins. “Pero, si ir a la universidad es la meta, tener dos maestros de la misma raza ayuda aún más.”

Aparte del impacto de tener modelos a seguir de la misma raza, los investigadores desubrienron que las expectativas de los maestros también influyen en las aspiraciónes y en el éxito a largo plazo de los jóvenes. Maestros/profesores negros, resulta, tienden a tener expectativas significativamente mas altas para estudiantes negros que maestros blancos. Estas expectativas, en turno, pueden convertirse en profecías autocumplidas.

Ya que la gran mayoría de maestros son blancos, aún que no pueden ser modelos de seguir de la misma raza para estudiantes negros, les toca a ellos no subestimar el potencial de sus estudiantes negros, al contrario, asumir y transmitir la creencia que ellos tienen el mismo potencial para aprender, lograr y tener exito como jóvenes blancos.

Mientras echamos esfuerzos para encontrar y entrenar nuevos maestros negros,” dice Papageorge, “también necesitamos educar maestros blancos sobre sesgo implícito, enseñarlos a estar competente culturalmente, y mostrarles como no exacerbar/hacer aún peor estas brechas de logros existentes.”

-----

If you enjoyed this post, please sign up to follow or receive email alerts from zerospinzone.blogspot.com










Saturday, October 15, 2016

OFFICER INVOLVED DEATHS IN BLACK AND WHITE

If you consider yourself a member of the fact-based community, you might be interested in some new research about deaths at the hands of police in the U.S.


Memorial to Michael Brown, Ferguson, Missouri. Credit: Jamelle Bouie

The study was carried out by researchers at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice of the City University of New York. They analyzed data from the National Violent Death Reporting System for the years 2009 through 2012. The 812 fatal encounters they studied came from 17 states that voluntarily provide the CDC with relevant statistics.


You can access the full report, "Death Due to Lethal Force by Law Enforcement," here

I'll list some of their key findings:

The victims were predominantly male (96.1%), as were the police officers involved (97.4%). 

Blacks were 2.8 times more likely to die at the hands of police than whites.

If you assume that blacks are more likely to be armed in these fatal encounters, you would be wrong. Black victims were 1.6 times more likely to be unarmed (14.8%) compared to whites (9.4%).

If you assume that blacks are more likely to have placed the officers involved at risk, you would also be wrong. "Black victims were also significantly less likely than whites to have posed an immediate threat to LE [law enforcement]," the authors write.

The authors cite an earlier study by other researchers using FBI statistics that found that the likelihood of a suspect being killed per 100,000 police stops or arrests was not significantly different among blacks, hispanics and non-hispanic whites. However, the same study showed that compared to whites and Asians, blacks, native Americans and Hispanics were stopped by police significantly more frequently.

That study also produced two statistics that surprised me--a suspect or bystander is seriously injured or killed in one out of every 291 police stops, and U.S. police killed or injured an estimated 55,400 people in 2012.

The 812 deaths in 17 states analyzed in the current study represent just a fraction of the total number of people killed by police during those years. Reliable numbers are hard to come by, but the Nevada-based website fatalencounters.org sets out to count every case by collating information from multiple sources. They list by name 3825 individuals who died in encounters with police during those same years.

If you compare either number with the number of legal executions (i.e. capital punishment) in the United States--never more than 100 in any year since 1976, and just 43 in 2012--it becomes obvious that there is an enormous gap between justice applied with our constitutionally-guaranteed due process and what actually happens many times per day on the street. You'll find a more recent, in-depth post on that subject here.

The authors of the current study take pains not to vilify law enforcement officers. They write about the kinds of implicit biases that almost everyone carries, perhaps exacerbated by negative experiences policing particular neighborhoods, training issues, police culture, and a variety of other factors that together may help explain this disparity.

Whatever the causes, the study provides hard data that support what blacks know all too well--that far too many black men die in encounters with police, including a disproportionate number who are unarmed and non-threatening.

But it's also clear that this isn't just a racial problem--it's a systemic nationwide problem involving the police and the communities they are supposed to serve. Even the "safest" Americans, non-Hispanic whites, are 26 times more likely to die in an encounter with police than, for example, a German citizen. 

Whatever happened to "protect and serve?"


Credit: Thomas Hawk